Menachem Begin

Menachem Begin
Born	Menachem Wolfovitch Begin 8/16/1913
Birthplace	Brest-Litovsk, Russian Empire
Died	3/9/1992 Tel Aviv, Israel
Nationality	Israeli
Occupation	Politician, paramilitary leader, lawyer
Known for	Prime Minister of Israel, Camp David Accords, founding Likud
Education	University of Warsaw (LL.M.)
Spouse(s)	Aliza Arnold (m. 1939; d. 1982)
Children	3
Awards	Nobel Peace Prize (1978)

Menachem Begin (16 August 1913 – 9 March 1992) was an Israeli politician and former militant leader who served as the sixth Prime Minister of Israel from 1977 to 1983. Born in the Russian Empire into a family steeped in Zionist conviction, Begin's life traced an arc from underground resistance against British rule in Mandatory Palestine to the highest office in the State of Israel. As commander of the Irgun, the Revisionist Zionist paramilitary organization, he directed a campaign of armed revolt against British authorities beginning in 1944, including the bombing of the King David Hotel in 1946. After Israeli independence, he entered democratic politics, founding the Herut party and later consolidating the Israeli right into Likud. For nearly three decades he sat in opposition, losing eight consecutive elections before his landmark 1977 victory ended the long dominance of the Labor movement. Begin's most consequential act as prime minister was the negotiation of the Camp David Accords with Egyptian President Anwar Sadat, resulting in the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty—the first between Israel and an Arab state—for which both men shared the Nobel Peace Prize. His tenure also saw the authorization of the bombing of Iraq's Osirak nuclear reactor and the 1982 invasion of Lebanon, which became increasingly controversial. Devastated by the death of his wife Aliza and burdened by the toll of the Lebanon conflict, Begin resigned in October 1983 and withdrew almost entirely from public life until his death in 1992.

Early Life

Menachem Begin was born on 16 August 1913 in Brest-Litovsk, then part of the Russian Empire (present-day Brest, Belarus), to Ze'ev Dov Begin and Hassia Kossovsky. His family was part of the city's substantial Jewish community. Begin's father was a community leader and an ardent Zionist who served as secretary of the local Jewish community. The family lived modestly, and Begin grew up immersed in Hebrew language and Zionist ideology from an early age.

Begin joined the Betar youth movement, the Revisionist Zionist organization founded by Ze'ev Jabotinsky, at the age of fifteen. By the early 1930s, he had risen through the ranks of Betar, becoming head of the organization's chapter in Czechoslovakia and eventually rising to lead Betar in Poland, then the movement's largest branch, in 1939. Jabotinsky's ideology of militant Zionism and his insistence on Jewish self-defense and statehood on both sides of the Jordan River had a formative and lasting influence on Begin's political worldview.

The outbreak of World War II in September 1939 shattered the life Begin had known. Following the Soviet invasion of eastern Poland under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Begin was arrested by the Soviet NKVD in 1940 on charges of being an "agent of British imperialism" due to his Zionist activities. He was sentenced to eight years in a Siberian labor camp, where he endured harsh conditions. Begin's parents and a brother perished during the Holocaust; his father was reportedly killed by the Nazis in Brest-Litovsk. This personal loss deepened Begin's resolve regarding Jewish sovereignty and self-defense.

Begin was released from the Soviet labor camp in 1941 following the Sikorski–Mayski Agreement between the Polish government-in-exile and the Soviet Union, which led to the amnesty of Polish citizens held in Soviet custody. He enlisted in the Polish Free Army under General Władysław Anders (known as Anders' Army), serving as a corporal. His unit was transferred through Central Asia and Iran, and in 1942, Begin arrived in British Mandatory Palestine with the Anders forces. He was discharged from the Polish army in late 1943 and immediately immersed himself in the underground struggle for Jewish statehood.

Education

Begin studied law at the University of Warsaw, earning a Master of Laws (LL.M.) degree. During his years at the university in the 1930s, he was active in student politics and in the Betar movement, experiences that sharpened both his legal mind and his skills as a public speaker and organizer. His legal training would later inform his approach to governance and his emphasis on the rule of law, even during the turbulent years of underground activity.

Career

Commander of the Irgun

Upon arriving in Mandatory Palestine in 1942, Begin quickly became involved with the Irgun Zvai Leumi (National Military Organization), the Revisionist Zionist paramilitary group. In late 1943, he assumed command of the Irgun, succeeding Yaakov Meridor. On 1 February 1944, Begin issued a proclamation of revolt against British mandatory rule, declaring that the Irgun would use force to expel the British from Palestine and establish a Jewish state. This declaration came at a time when the mainstream Zionist leadership under the Jewish Agency, led by David Ben-Gurion, opposed armed action against the British during the war against Nazi Germany.

Under Begin's command, the Irgun carried out a series of attacks on British military and governmental installations. The most prominent of these was the bombing of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem on 22 July 1946, which served as the headquarters of the British Mandatory authorities. The attack killed 91 people, including British, Arab, and Jewish personnel. Begin later claimed that warnings had been issued before the bombing, though this assertion remained contested. The British government designated the Irgun a terrorist organization and described Begin as "the leader of the notorious terrorist organisation," declining him entry into the United Kingdom between 1953 and 1955.

During the 1947–48 civil war in Mandatory Palestine, following the United Nations Partition Plan, the Irgun fought Arab forces alongside, but not always in coordination with, the Haganah. After the declaration of Israeli independence on 14 May 1948, a crisis erupted over the Altalena, a ship carrying arms for the Irgun. David Ben-Gurion, as head of the new provisional government, ordered the Israel Defense Forces to prevent the unloading of weapons not under state control. The confrontation resulted in the shelling of the Altalena off the coast of Tel Aviv in June 1948, killing several Irgun members. Begin, who was aboard the ship, chose not to retaliate and ordered his followers to stand down, averting a potential civil war. This decision, though agonizing, demonstrated Begin's commitment to preventing fratricidal conflict and was later recognized as a pivotal moment in Israel's early statehood.

A letter published in The New York Times in December 1948, signed by Albert Einstein, Hannah Arendt, and other prominent Jewish intellectuals, denounced Begin's Herut party during his visit to the United States, comparing aspects of its ideology and methods to fascism. The letter reflected the deep divisions within the Zionist movement regarding the Irgun's tactics and Begin's political direction.

Parliamentary Opposition (1948–1977)

Following the dissolution of the Irgun and its incorporation into the IDF, Begin entered mainstream politics. He founded the Herut ("Freedom") party in 1948, drawing on the ideological legacy of Revisionist Zionism and the membership base of the Irgun and Betar. Herut represented the political right in Israeli politics, advocating for Israeli sovereignty over the entirety of the Land of Israel, including Transjordan, and opposing the socialist economic policies of the ruling Mapai party under Ben-Gurion.

Begin was elected to the first Knesset in 1949 and would serve continuously as a member of parliament for over three decades. In the early years, he and his party were treated as political outcasts by the Labor establishment. Ben-Gurion famously refused to refer to Begin by name in the Knesset, calling him only "the man sitting next to MK Yohanan Bader." Begin was a skilled parliamentary orator known for his sharp rhetorical style and his ability to challenge the government from the opposition benches. He fiercely opposed the 1952 reparations agreement with West Germany, leading mass protests outside the Knesset that nearly devolved into a serious confrontation.

In 1965, Herut merged with the Liberal Party to form Gahal, broadening its appeal to include middle-class voters. Begin led the Gahal faction in the Knesset. On the eve of the Six-Day War in June 1967, Gahal joined a national unity government under Prime Minister Levi Eshkol, and Begin served as a Minister without Portfolio in the Prime Minister's Office from 1967 to 1970. This was his first taste of governmental power and helped legitimize both Begin and the Israeli right in the eyes of the public.

In 1973, Begin orchestrated the formation of the Likud bloc, a coalition of right-wing and centrist parties anchored by Gahal, which further consolidated the opposition. Despite these organizational advances, Begin lost the 1973 elections in the wake of the Yom Kippur War. However, public dissatisfaction with the Labor government's handling of the war and subsequent economic difficulties gradually shifted the political landscape in his favor.

Prime Minister (1977–1983)

On 17 May 1977, Likud won a dramatic electoral victory, securing 43 seats in the Knesset compared to Labor's 32. Begin formed a coalition government and took office as Prime Minister on 21 June 1977. The victory, known in Israeli political history as the "Mahapakh" (upheaval or revolution), ended nearly three decades of Labor-led governance and represented a fundamental shift in Israeli politics. Begin's support drew heavily from Mizrahi Jews—those of Middle Eastern and North African descent—who felt marginalized by the Ashkenazi-dominated Labor establishment, as well as from religious and nationalist constituencies.

Camp David Accords and Peace with Egypt

Begin's most consequential achievement as prime minister was the negotiation of peace with Egypt. In November 1977, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat made an unprecedented visit to Jerusalem, addressing the Knesset and signaling Egypt's willingness to recognize Israel. Begin responded by entering negotiations that led to the Camp David Accords, brokered by United States President Jimmy Carter in September 1978. The accords consisted of two frameworks: one for peace between Egypt and Israel, and another for broader peace in the Middle East addressing the Palestinian question.

On 26 March 1979, Begin and Sadat signed the Egypt–Israel peace treaty on the White House lawn. Under the terms of the treaty, Israel agreed to a phased withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula, which it had occupied since the 1967 Six-Day War, in exchange for full diplomatic recognition from Egypt and security arrangements. The withdrawal entailed the dismantling of Israeli settlements in the Sinai, including the town of Yamit, a process that was completed in 1982. For their efforts, Begin and Sadat were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in December 1978.

The peace agreement was controversial within Israel and in the broader Arab world. Begin faced opposition from within his own Likud party and from the settler movement over the withdrawal from Sinai. In the Arab world, Egypt was expelled from the Arab League, and Sadat was assassinated in October 1981 by Egyptian militants opposed to the peace agreement. Nonetheless, the Egypt–Israel peace treaty has endured and remains one of the cornerstones of Middle Eastern diplomacy.

Settlement Policy

While making territorial concessions in the Sinai as part of the peace agreement with Egypt, Begin's government actively promoted the construction of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Begin viewed these territories, which he referred to by their biblical names of Judea and Samaria, as integral parts of the historical Land of Israel. Under his government, the number of settlements expanded significantly, a policy that generated international criticism and complicated future peace negotiations regarding Palestinian self-determination.

Bombing of Osirak

On 7 June 1981, Begin authorized Operation Opera, an Israeli Air Force strike that destroyed the Osirak nuclear reactor near Baghdad, Iraq. The reactor, which was being built with French assistance, was suspected by Israeli intelligence of being intended for the production of nuclear weapons. The operation was carried out by a squadron of F-16 and F-15 aircraft and achieved its objective in under two minutes. The bombing was condemned internationally, including by the United States and the United Nations Security Council. Begin defended the operation by invoking the threat of a nuclear-armed Iraq and the memory of the Holocaust, stating that Israel would not allow another enemy to develop the capability to destroy the Jewish people.

1982 Lebanon War

In June 1982, Begin's government launched Operation Peace for Galilee, a military invasion of southern Lebanon aimed at destroying Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) bases from which attacks had been launched against northern Israel. The operation, directed by Defense Minister Ariel Sharon, initially aimed to push PLO forces beyond a 40-kilometer buffer zone but quickly expanded in scope, with Israeli forces reaching Beirut. The siege of Beirut and the subsequent fighting drew increasing international condemnation.

The war's most devastating episode was the Sabra and Shatila massacre in September 1982, in which Christian Phalangist militias allied with Israel entered Palestinian refugee camps in Beirut and killed a large number of civilians. Although the killings were carried out by the Phalangists, Israel faced severe criticism for allowing the militias to enter the camps while IDF forces controlled the surrounding area. An Israeli commission of inquiry, the Kahan Commission, found that Israeli officials bore indirect responsibility and recommended the removal of Sharon as defense minister. Begin himself took on the defense portfolio briefly in 1983.

The Lebanon War proved to be a turning point in Begin's premiership. Casualty figures mounted, the economy suffered from hyperinflation, and public protests against the war grew. Begin appeared increasingly withdrawn and burdened by the conflict's toll.

Resignation

The death of Begin's wife, Aliza, on 13 November 1982, was a devastating personal blow from which he never recovered. In the months that followed, Begin became visibly depressed and disengaged from the duties of his office. On 28 August 1983, he told his cabinet, "I cannot go on any longer," and on 15 September 1983, he formally submitted his letter of resignation. Yitzhak Shamir succeeded him as prime minister on 10 October 1983.

Begin spent the remaining years of his life in near-total seclusion in his Jerusalem apartment, rarely venturing outside and receiving few visitors. He refused to make public statements or engage in political activity. This period of withdrawal lasted nearly a decade.

Personal Life

Begin married Aliza Arnold in May 1939 in Poland, shortly before the outbreak of World War II. Aliza, herself a Zionist activist, was a lifelong partner in Begin's political career and was known for her discretion and steadiness. The couple had three children, including a son, Ze'ev Binyamin Begin, who later became a politician in his own right and served as a member of the Knesset for Likud. Begin's grandson, Avinadav Begin, became an artist known for his iron sculptures.

Aliza Begin's death on 13 November 1982 had a profound effect on Begin. He was reported to have been deeply devoted to her throughout their marriage, and her passing, combined with the pressures of the Lebanon War and public criticism, contributed to his depression and eventual withdrawal from public life. Begin was known personally for his formal manners, his adherence to Jewish tradition, and his emphasis on personal dignity and honor. He was also known for his modest lifestyle; unlike many political leaders, he did not accumulate wealth during his years in office.

Menachem Begin died on 9 March 1992 in Tel Aviv at the age of 78. In accordance with his wishes, he was buried on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem in a simple ceremony, rather than receiving the state funeral on Mount Herzl to which he was entitled as a former prime minister.

Recognition

Begin's most prominent honor was the Nobel Peace Prize, which he shared with Anwar Sadat in 1978 for their negotiation of the Camp David Accords and the subsequent peace treaty between Israel and Egypt. The award recognized the historic nature of the first peace agreement between Israel and an Arab state.

In Israel, Begin's legacy is commemorated through the Menachem Begin Heritage Center in Jerusalem, which houses archives, exhibits, and educational programs related to his life and career. The center also serves as a museum documenting the history of the Irgun and the broader Israeli right-wing movement.

The British government, which had refused Begin a visa in the 1950s due to his Irgun activities, eventually reversed its position and granted him an entry visa in 1972, five years before he became prime minister. This shift reflected the changing attitudes toward Begin as he moved from the political fringe to the center of Israeli politics.

Begin has continued to be the subject of analysis and commentary in Israeli political discourse. Surveillance files from the pre-independence Haganah intelligence service, made public in 2025, contained physical and character descriptions of Begin from his Irgun years, reflecting the intense rivalry between the Haganah and the Irgun during the Mandate period.

Legacy

Menachem Begin's legacy in Israeli and Middle Eastern history is multifaceted and remains a subject of debate. His 1977 electoral victory fundamentally reshaped Israeli politics, ending the hegemony of the Labor movement and establishing the political right as a permanent and dominant force. Likud, the party he consolidated, has governed Israel for the majority of the period since 1977, and Begin's ideological imprint—emphasizing Jewish national rights, Greater Israel, and a strong defense posture—continues to define the party's orientation.

The peace treaty with Egypt remains Begin's most enduring accomplishment. The agreement removed the largest and most militarily powerful Arab state from the conflict with Israel and fundamentally altered the strategic balance of the Middle East. The treaty has survived more than four decades of regional upheaval, including the assassination of Sadat, multiple conflicts, and the Egyptian revolution of 2011. Begin's willingness to withdraw from the Sinai Peninsula—including the dismantling of settlements—demonstrated that territorial compromise was possible from a leader of the Israeli right, a precedent that has been both invoked and contested in subsequent Israeli debates over peace and territory.

Begin's settlement policy in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, however, created a legacy of territorial and demographic complications that continued to shape the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The expansion of settlements under his government established patterns of construction that successive governments—both right and left—found difficult to reverse.

Comparisons between Begin and subsequent Israeli leaders, particularly Benjamin Netanyahu, have become a recurring theme in Israeli political commentary. Analysts have examined the parallels and contrasts between the two Likud prime ministers, particularly regarding their approaches to security, peace, and the use of historical trauma in political discourse.

Begin's final years of seclusion—nearly a decade of almost complete withdrawal from public life—added a dimension of personal tragedy to his story. The image of the once-combative orator and determined leader retreating into silence stood in contrast to the forcefulness that had characterized his entire career, from the underground resistance through his years in opposition and in power.